Factors Influencing Engagement of Private Tutoring at Cambodian Upper Secondary Schools

Abstract

Private tutoring (PT) has gained popularity across continents in various forms and scales. Some studies point out that PT expansion is particularly prominent in Asia, especially in countries influenced by Confucian culture, under competitive educational environments (e.g., leaving/standardized examinations and university entrance examinations). Specifically, Cambodian students face challenges in learning the entire curriculum through public schools alone. As a result, students invest their financial resources in PT before or after official school hours to continue the school syllabus effectively. This situation disadvantages students who cannot afford PT, especially in the secondary school leaving examination. In this context, studies and media reports have criticized the quality of public education, highlighting issues such as teacher unprofessionalism and inequity in Cambodian society.

Although Cambodian authorities have successfully expanded school access to all geographical areas, other issues, such as equity and quality of education, remain. Studies and media have criticized the government’s low educational spending, which imposes financial burdens on households, including PT expenses. Parents and students invest both money and time in PT before and after school hours to ensure academic success. This also compels teachers to seek additional jobs, including offering PT to their own students to meet daily needs. Due to insufficient salaries, many Cambodian schoolteachers engage in PT with their students, an act that has unfortunately been categorized as unprofessional and oppressive. The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) and the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport (MoEYS) have launched a series of programs, such as abolishing school fees and informal payments (including PT), increasing teachers' salaries, and amending the professional ethics code of conduct (known as the “discouragement” scenario) to regulate PT in the literature. Despite these reforms, PT practices remain prevalent. Furthermore, the national survey of Cambodia’s Socio-Economic Survey reported that the rate of students engaging in PT outside school hours was approximately 76% from 2015 to 2020. Therefore, the question arises: why is PT still in demand at Cambodian upper secondary schools?

This study aims to answer two research questions:

1. Why do schoolteachers continue offering PT at Cambodian upper secondary schools?

2. Why do students and parents continue investing in PT at Cambodian upper secondary schools?

To address these questions, the study employed both interview and survey approaches for data collection and analysis to gain insights into the issue of PT at Cambodian upper secondary schools. Narrative data were collected from 89 interviewees, including various educational stakeholders (e.g., schoolteachers, Grade-12 students and their parents, school principals, vice-directors of the Provincial Office of Education, and policy-level staff), and 198 schoolteachers and 862 paired students and parents through a self-reported survey. Data were gathered from 12 upper secondary schools in Phnom Penh and four different provinces using online applications due to school closures following the COVID-19 pandemic.

Key findings for Research Question #1:
The first research question sought to understand why schoolteachers at upper secondary schools continue offering PT to their Grade-12 students. The primary reasons influencing schoolteachers to continue offering PT were the shortage of instructional time to complete the school syllabus, low salaries, teacher specialization, and requests from parents and school principals. The study unexpectedly found that anti-cheating examinations ironically prompted schoolteachers to continue offering PT, as students and parents feared failure in their baccalaureate examinations.

Key findings for Research Question #2:
The second research question aimed to investigate why Cambodian Grade-12 students and their parents continue investing in PT. Key findings indicated that schoolteachers’ uncaring pedagogies, oppressive behavior in school, and fear of failure due to anti-cheating examinations contributed to students' and parents’ continued investment in PT. Additionally, peer influence and the inability to provide academic support at home were factors that led parents to invest in PT for their children. The study also observed that students’ learning tracks (science and social science) influenced their engagement with PT, rather than only focusing on the rates of students taking PT for each academic subject as previous studies did. This insight could contribute to policy development and highlight MoEYS's challenges in promoting the science track at upper secondary school. The study revealed that students in science were more likely to engage in PT than their peers in social science because their mathematics and science tests were more challenging. However, some students in social science who switched to a science-related university track also invested in PT, not for the baccalaureate examination but for university entrance exams.

Key findings for the main research question:
Although the anti-cheating examination policy provides Grade-12 students with an equitable opportunity, it ironically contributed to the expansion of PT engagement and burdened some students and parents, particularly those following the science track. Students and parents feared failure in the baccalaureate examination because they did not trust learning solely in school. PT remained in demand due to insufficient instructional time to cover all content in the MoEYS syllabus. Additionally, PT was the only available supplemental educational option. Contradictorily, from a leadership perspective, some criticized teachers for lateness and absenteeism in their daily teaching, contributing to the lack of instructional time. These factors were viewed as a malpractice by schoolteachers, who may engage in PT to "blackmail" students. This issue implies that poor school accountability, a lack of monitoring systems, and weak school leadership were factors contributing to the continued practice of PT, as observed in other developing countries.

The study also found that students’ learning tracks impacted their decision to engage in PT. Students in science tracks faced greater financial burdens and challenges in passing grades. In contrast, students in social science tracks were less likely to engage in PT because they did not need extra help for their core examination subjects. Social science students could rely on memorization skills, while science students required more practice (e.g., mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology). Nevertheless, about 90% of social science students also took mathematics and Khmer composition, compulsory subjects for both learning tracks, but faced fewer financial burdens and test challenges. These disparities might contribute to the declining enrollment rates in science tracks at upper secondary schools. For instance, the enrollment of students in the science track dropped from approximately 96% in 2014 to over 36% in 2021, according to the Department of General Education in Cambodia. This decline raises concerns for MoEYS in its efforts to promote science and mathematics education.

In summary, PT for Grade-12 students in Cambodia remains in high demand among schoolteachers, students, and parents due to factors such as fear of failure in the anti-cheating examination and the students’ learning tracks. PT plays a significant role in continuing the school syllabus and supplementing excluded content, especially practical skills. Ironically, the anti-cheating examination policy, part of the 2014 educational reform agenda, contributed to the expansion of PT in Cambodia, despite providing equitable opportunities in the Grade-12 baccalaureate examination. This expansion is linked to limited trust in the teaching and learning quality in public schools, often attributed to insufficient instructional time, which has been labeled a “teacher trick” by leadership. PT’s growth has imposed financial burdens on students’ families, especially those in the science track. While PT fees remain affordable for many Cambodian households, its expansion has created inequitable opportunities for disadvantaged groups, pushing them into debt and leading some students to switch from the science track to the social science track to enhance their chances for social mobility through the baccalaureate examination.